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25  Sentence and government theory

Warning

THIS BOOK IS A WORK IN PROGRESS. IT IS INCOMPLETE AND MAY HAVE TYPOGRAPHICAL AND OTHER ERRORS. IT IS NOT YET READY FOR STUDY.

25.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we will study the Arabic grammatical model for constructing sentences. We will first define some linguistic terms.

25.1.1 Truth-evaluability

Statements are classified into two types:

  1. a truth-evaluable statement
  2. a non-truth-evaluable statement

A truth-evaluable statement is one that can be judged to be true or false. In other words it is falsifiable. For example, if we have a statement:

  1. زَيْدٌ قَائِمٌ
    Zayd is standing.

The above statement may be judged to have a truth value. If zayd is actually standing, then the statement is true. And if zayd is not standing, then the statement is false.

A non-truth-evaluable statement, on the other hand, does not have a truth value. Here are some examples of non-truth-evaluable statements:

  1. اضْرِبْ زَيْدًا
    Beat Zayd!

  2. لَا تَفْعَلْ
    Don’t do [it]!

  3. يَا زَيْدُ
    O Zayd

  4. مَنْ هُوَ
    Who is he?

25.1.2 Syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and stylistics

Syntax and semantics

Semantics is the study of the meanings of words. And syntax is the study of how words combine to form phrases and sentences. Syntax deals with the grammatical relationships between the words in a sentence. For example, consider the adjectival noun كَبِير. Semantically, it gives the meaning of something being big. When it is in a linguistic environment, like a phrase or a sentence, then its syntactical role is determined by the grammatical relationships it has with other words in the sentence.

Consider the following sentence:

  1. الْبَيْتُ كَبِيرٌ
    The house is big

In the above sentence, كَبِير is syntactically a info.

Now consider the following sentence:

  1. دَخَلَ بَيْتًا كَبِيرًا
    He entered a big house.

Now the same noun كَبِير is syntactically a attribute. In both examples, كَبِير has the same semantic signification.

Pragmatics

Pragmatics is the study of what sentences mean in a specific context or situation.

Stylistics

In order to express a meaning, there will often be a normal way to choose words or construct a sentence’s structure. If, for some effect (rhetorical, persuasive, literary, etc.), the speaker chooses to deviate from this norm, then he is doing so for stylistic reasons.1

25.2 The theory of government

A sentence in Arabic is constituted from elements. An element can be a noun, a verb, or a particle. Of these elements, some have the quality of state. These are called stateful elements. The stateful elements are nouns and stateful verbs. A noun may be either in the u-state, a-state, or i-state. And a stateful verb may be either in the u-state, a-state, or 0-state. The theory of government states that a stateful element is put in a particular state by a governor. For example:

  1. فِي الدَّارِ
    in the house

In the above example, the gpreposition فِي causes the noun الدَّار to be in the i-state. So we say that the governor فِي governs الدَّار (the governee) in the i-state.

25.3 Some common governees

Let’s look at some common governor-governee relationships. We will make use of the following example:

  1. قَرَأَ الْغُلَامُ الطَّوِيلُ كِتَابَ الجَارِيَةِ فِي الدَّارِ الْكَبِيرَةِ

The i-state noun

A noun in the i-state is governed by a preceding preposition or annexe noun. We have already seen that the i-state noun الدَّار is governed by the preceding preposition فِي. We also see that the i-state base noun الجَارِيَةِ is governed by the annexe noun كِتَابَ.

The doer

The doer of a verb is governed by its preceding verb. In our example the verb قَرَأَ governs its doer الْغُلَامُ in the u-state.

The direct doee

The direct doee is also governed by its verb. In our example the verb قَرَأَ governs its direct doee كِتَابَ in the a-state.

The attribute

A attribute is governed by governor of its attributee. In our example, the attribute الطَّوِيلُ is governed in the u-state by قَرَأَ, which is the governor of its attributee الْغُلَامُ. Similarly, the attribute الْكَبِيرَةِ is governed in the i-state by the preposition فِي because فِي also governs its attributee الدَّارِ.

Ungoverned elements

Not every element in a sentence is governed by a governor. For example, the perfect verb قَرَأَ has no state, and thus, no governor.

Here is a diagram depicting the above governor-governee relationships:

DIAGRAM

25.4 The two structural elements of a sentence

In the Arabic grammatical model, a sentence is analagous to the structure of a simple lean-to building. This structure requires two structural elements in order to be structurally complete.2 These two structural elements are:

  1. The structure-starter
  2. The structure-completer

The structure-starter is the primary structural element. It represents whom the sentence is about, i.e. its topic. The structure-completer rests against the structure-starter. It expresses some property about the structure-starter that completes the meaning of the sentence.

Once the two structural elements are in place, the sentence is structurally complete. Other dispensable elements (see section (ref) below) may be added in addition to the structural elements to add meaning to the sentence, but they are not required to make the sentence structurally complete.

Let’s look at the structural elements for the two types of Arabic sentences:

25.4.1 The structural elements of a nounal sentence

In a nounal sentence the subject is the structure-starter and the info is the structure-completer. Consider the following nounal sentence:

  1. زَيْدٌ قَائِمٌ
    Zayd is standing.

DIAGRAM

Example (10) above is a nounal sentence. The subject زَيْدٌ is the structure-starter. It is the topic of the sentence. The info قَائِمٌ is the structure-completer. It is a comment on the topic, giving us some information about زَيْدٌ.

25.4.2 The structural elements of a verbal sentence

In a verbal sentence the verb is the structure-completer and its doer is the structure-starter. Consider the following verbal sentence:

  1. قَامَ زَيْدٌ

DIAGRAM

Example (11) above is a verbal sentence. The doer زَيْدٌ is the structure-starter. It is the topic of the sentence. And the verb قَامَ is the structure-completer. It is a comment on the topic.

25.5 Foundational government

In order to build a sentence from the structural elements, a sentence needs foundational government.[Owens §2.3.6.1, 54] Foundational government is any and all government prior to, and until, the first governed structural element.

One of the two structural elements is the foundational government

In some sentences, the intitial governor may be one of the two structural elements. In example (11) above, the verb قَامَ governs its doer زَيْدٌ. The perfect verb قَامَ has no state and thus needs no governor. So it is, itself, the foundational government.

DIAGRAM

Another (non-structural) element is the foundational government

The intitial governor may be internal to the sentence but not one of the two structural elements.

Here are some examples:

  1. لَمْ يَضْرِبِ الرَّجُلُ غُلَامَ زَيْدٍ [Owens, J., The foundations of grammar §2.2.3, 41]
    The man did not beat Zayd’s slave.

DIAGRAM

  1. إِنَّ زَيْدًا قَائِمٌ
    Indeed Zayd is standing.

DIAGRAM

The abstract foundational government

Very commonly, the foundational government is not an actual word, but only an abstract concept. When there is one or more stateful structural elements in a sentence with no overt (i.e. observable) governor, then this necessitates bringing in a abstract foundational government.3 For example:

  1. زَيْدٌ مُنْطَلِقٌ [Peled, Sentence types 87]
    Zayd is setting out.

The abstract foundational government governs both the structure-starter (the subject زَيْدٌ), and the structure-completer (the info مُنْطَلِقٌ) in the u-state.

  1. يَقُومُ زَيْدٌ
    Zayd stands

The abstract foundational government governs the structure-completer (the stateful verb يَقُومُ) in the u-state. And, as usual, the verb يَقُومُ governs its doer زَيْدٌ (the structure-starter) in the u-state.

25.6 Dispensable elements

A dispensable element is any stateful element in a sentence, after the foundational government, that is not either of the two structural elements. The source of government for a dispensable element must be, directly or indirectly, one of the structural elements.

We know from section (ref) above, that in a nounal sentence the structural elements are the subject and the info. And that in a verbal sentence the structural elements are the verb and its doer. So all other elements besides these (and elements that constitute the foundational government) are dispensable elements. Here is an (incomplete) list of some common dispensable elements:

  • the attribute
  • the direct doee (usually)
  • the absolute doee (see chapter (ref))
  • the adverb of time and the adverb of place (see chapter (ref))
  • the adverb of reason (see chapter (ref))
  • the accompanying doee (see chapter (ref))
  • the ḥāl (see chapter (ref))
  • the tamyīz (see chapter (ref))

By the way, when we say dispensable, we mean that an element is dispensable in the sense that it is not required to complete the sentence structurally. We don’t mean that it is superfluous in terms of its meaning. In fact, a dispensable element may be essential for the correct meaning of the sentence. For example, consider the āyah:

  1. وَمَا خَلَقۡنَا ٱلسَّمَاۤءَ وَٱلۡأَرۡضَ وَمَا بَیۡنَهُمَا لَـٰعِبِینَ [سورة الأنبياء 21:16 cited by معاني النحو 1/14]
    And We did not create the heaven and earth and that between them in play.

لَاعِبِينَ is a ḥāl (see in chapter (ref)), which is a dispensable element. If we remove it from the sentence, then the sentence will be structurally complete but it will have an incorrect meaning.

25.7 Refining the definitions of the nounal sentence and the verbal sentence

We know that there are two basic types of Arabic sentences:

  1. The nounal sentence
  2. The verbal sentence

Previously we had said that a nounal sentence is one that begins with a noun. And a nounal sentence is one that begins with a verb. We will now refine these definitions:

A nounal sentence is one whose structural elements are two nouns: a subject (as the structure-starter) and an info (as the structure-completer). And a verbal sentence is one whose structural elements are a verb (as the structure-starter) and and its doer (as the structure-completer).

Consider, for example, the following sentence:

  1. بَلْ زَيْدٌ قَائِمٌ
    Rather Zayd is standing.

The first word in the sentence above is بَلْ. It is a particle and not a structural element. Removing it from the sentence, we see that the remaining structural elements are two nouns: زَيْدٌ (the subject) and قَائِمٌ (as the info). So the sentence is a nounal sentence.

Let’s take a look at another example:

  1. زَيْدًا رَأَيْتُ [Peled, Sentence types 28]
    [It was] Zayd I saw.

The first word in the sentence is زَيْدًا. It is a direct doee. We learned in section (ref) above that a direct doee is not usually a structural element. Rather, it is usually a dispensable elements Stripping the sentence of this dispensable element, we are left with رَأَيْتُ I saw. This is a verbal sentence. The verb رَأى is the structure-completer and its doer, the pronoun تُ, is the structure-starter.

25.8 Identifying the structural elements in a nounal sentence

It can sometimes be complicated to tell which of the twp structural elements in a nounal sentence is the structure-starter and which is the structure-completer. We will discuss several cases below:

25.8.1 When there is an overt foundational government

When there is an overt foundational government, like إِنَّ, كَانَ, etc., then it is usually easy to tell which is the structure-starter and which is the structure-completer. For example:

  1. فَإِنَّ حَسۡبَكَ ٱللَّهُ [سورة الأنفال 8:62]
    then sufficient for you is Allāh

In example (19) above, حَسْب is in the a-state as the subject and the word ٱللَّهُ is in the u-state as the info. This tells us that حَسْب is the structure-starter and the word ٱللَّهُ is the structure-completer.

25.8.2 One structural element is definite and the other structural element is indefinite

When one structural element is definite and the other structural element is indefinite, then it is usually the case that the definite element is the structure-starter (as the subject) and the indefinite element is the structure-completer (as the info).

In terms of pragmatics, the structure-starter and the structure-completer represent ‘given’ and ‘new’ information. That is, the listener knows who the structure-starter is and can identify him or it. So the structure-starter is a ‘given’ to the listener. And the speaker is providing ‘new’ information about the structure-starter to the listener. The definite element represents the ‘given’ information, which the listener already knows. And the indefinite element represents ‘new’ information.

Let’s take a look at an example:

  1. تَمِيمِيٌّ أَنَا [Peled, Sentence types 121]
    A Tamīmite I am.

The pronoun أَنَا is definite. Therefore it is the structure-starter (as the subject). And the word تَمِيمِيٌّ is indefinite. Therefore it is the structure-completer (as the info). Example (20) is an inverted order sentence where the info is fronted and the subject is placed after it.

In special cases, some grammarians hold that it is possible to have an indefinite subject and a definite info.4 One special case is when a question noun is the subject. (Question nouns are considered indefinite.) For example:

  1. كَمْ مَالُكَ [حاشية الصبان على شرح الأشمونى لألفية ابن مالك 1/231]
    How much is your wealth?

  2. أَيُّ لَيْلَةٍ لَيْلَةُ الْقَدْرِ [جامع الترمذي :3513]
    Which night is the night of Decree

Another special case is when the subject is an indefinite comparative noun in sentences like:

  1. خَيْرٌ مِنْكَ زَيْدٌ [حاشية الصبان على شرح الأشمونى لألفية ابن مالك 1/231]
    Better than you is Zayd

In the above sentence, خَيْرٌ is considered the subject of the sentence.

25.8.3 Both structural elements are definite

When both structural elements are definite, then typically the first is the subject and the second is the info. For example:

  1. الدِّينُ النَّصِيحَةُ [صحيح مسلم :55a]
    The Religion is sincerity.

However, if it is known from context that one if the two elements is the ‘given’ information and the other is the ‘new’ information, then the given information will be the subject and the new information will be the info, regardless of word-order.5

For example, consider a situation where one wishes to say, “Abū Yūsuf is [like] Abū Ḥanīfah.” (Imām Abū Yūsuf was the foremost student of Imām Abū Ḥanīfah.) The normal way to express this sentence is:

  1. أَبُو يُوسُفَ أَبُو حَنِيفَةَ [شرح ابن عقيل على الألفية 1/233]
    Abū Yūsuf is [like] Abū Ḥanīfah.

DIAGRAM

However, if it is pragmatically known that the topic of the sentence is أَبُو يُوسُفَ, then it is ‘given’ that أَبُو يُوسُفَ is the structure-starter (as the subject). Similarly, it is known that likening him to أَبُو حَنِيفَةَ is the ‘new’ information. Therefore, أَبُو حَنِيفَةَ is the structure-completer (as the info). In this case, the sentence order can be flexible, and the info can be fronted (stylistically), for the same meaning, thus:

  1. أَبُو حَنِيفَةَ أَبُو يُوسُفَ
    [Like] Abū Ḥanīfah, Abū Yūsuf is.

DIAGRAM

25.8.4 Both structural elements are indefinite

When both structural elements are indefinite then, again, the first is likely to be the subject and the second to be the info. Examples:

  1. أَفْضَلُ مِنْ زَيْدٍ أَفْضَلُ مِنْ عَمْرٍو [شرح ابن عقيل على الألفية 1/232]
    [The person] better than Zayd is better than Ɛamr.

  2. وَجَزَ ٰ⁠ۤؤُا۟ سَیِّئَةࣲ سَیِّئَةࣱ مِّثۡلُهَاۖ [سورة الشورى 42:40]
    And the retribution for an evil act is an evil one like it

25.9 The info as a complete sentence

In a nounal sentence, the info is, by default, a single noun. See example (1) again:

  1. زَيْدٌ قَائِمٌ
    Zayd is standing.

In example (1), قَائِمٌ is a single word and it is the info. This is what we may call a simple nounal sentence.

In contrast, in a compound nounal sentence, the info is itself a complete sentence. For example:

  1. زَيْدٌ يَقُومُ
    Zayd – he stands

In example (29) above, زَيْدٌ is the subject and يَقُومُ is the info. But يَقُومُ is not a single word here. It is in fact a complete sentence. This is because, as we know, a verb must be followed by its doer. And if there is no overt doer, then a latent doer pronoun is implicated. So يَقُومُ is a a verbal sentence with the meaning he stands.

Here is example of a compound nounal sentence, whose info is also a nounal sentence:

  1. زَيْدٌ أَبُوهُ قَائِمٌ [التذييل والتكميل لأبي حيان 4/26]
    Zayd – his father is standing.

(FIXME: MOVE THIS TO KAANA CHAPTER):

Compound sentences are very common with كَانَ. Remember from section (ref) above that كَانَ is a deficient verb, and thus needs a info to grammatically the sentence. This info may be a single word, like:

  1. كَانَ زَيْدٌ قَائِمًا
    Zayd was standing.

Or the info of كَانَ may be a complete sentence:

  1. كَانَ زَيْدٌ يَقُومُ
    Zayd used to stand.

(END FIXME)

The info of a compound nounal sentence is typically a truth-evaluable sentence. But it need not be so. A non-truth-evaluable sentence is also valid as a info6 For example:

  1. زَيْدٌ اضْرِبْهُ [التذييل والتكميل لأبي حيان 4/27]
    Zayd – hit him!
    (i.e. Hit Zayd!)

25.9.1 The government of the compound nounal sentence sentence

The info of a compound nounal sentence is a complete sentence. Therefore, it has its own independent internal government for all elements within it (including its own foundational government). But the entire info is governed, albeit not markedly, by a governor in the outer sentence. For example, consider the following compound nounal sentence:

  1. زَيْدٌ لَمْ يَضْرِبْ عَمْرًا
    Zayd – he did not hit Ɛamr

In example (34) above, لَمْ يَضْرِبْ عَمْرًا is a complete sentence that is the info of the outer sentence. This inner sentence has its own internal government, starting with its foundational government لَمْ. The foundational government لَمْ governs the verb يَضْرِبْ in the 0-state. And the verb يَضْرِبْ governs an implicated latent doer pronoun (هُوَ) in the u-state, and the direct doee عَمْرًا in the a-state.

We will say that the inner sentence لَمْ يَضْرِبْ عَمْرًا is in place of a u-state noun as the info of the outer sentence.

The government of this compound sentence is illustrated in the diagram below:

DIAGRAM

25.9.2 Invalid inner sentences

Some sentences are not valid as inner sentences:

  • A sentence beginning with لَـٰكِنْ, حَتَّى, or بَلْ is not valid.7

  • A vocative sentence is not valid.8 So. we cannot say, for example:

    1. ✗ زيد يا أخاه [التذييل والتكميل لأبي حيان 4/28]
      “Zayd – O his brother.”

25.10 Other complete sentences in place of nouns

It is not only the info which can be replaced with a complete sentence. Other grammatical categories are also, by default, a single noun, but which can be replaced with complete sentences. We will discuss some of these categories below, and treat other categories in their respective chapters (like the ḥāl, the condition-response, and verbs of perception).

25.10.1 The direct doee as a complete sentence

A sentence which is direct speech occurs in the place of a direct doee. For example:

  1. قَالَ إِنِّی عَبۡدُ ٱللَّهِ [سورة مريم 19:30 cited by شرح شيخ زاده على قواعد الإعراب 1/23]
    [Jesus] said, “Indeed, I am the servant of Allāh.

In the example above, the sentence إِنِّی عَبۡدُ ٱللَّهِ is in place of the a-state direct doee of قَالَ.

A complete sentence can also occur as a direct doee with verbs of perception. Examples:

  1. ظَنَنْتُ زَيْدًا يَقْرَأُ [شرح شيخ زاده على قواعد الإعراب 1/24]
    I believed Zayd [to be] reading.

In the example above, the verbal sentence يَقْرَأُ is in place of the a-state direct doee of ظَنَنْتُ. We will learn more about this category in chapter (ref), if Allāh wills.

25.10.2 The attribute as a complete sentence

The attribute is, in principle, a single noun.

However, an sentence entire sentence may occur in place of the single noun. For example, instead of saying مَرَرْتُ بِرَجُلٍ قَائِمٍ, we can replace the single word attribute قَائِمٍ with the sentence يَقُومُ, thus:

  1. مَرَرْتُ بِرَجُلٍ يَقُومُ [الإيضاح للفارسي 308]
    I passed by a man [that] stands.
    (literally: I passed by a ‘he stands’ man.

Note that the stateful verb يَقُومُ is in the u-state. This is because يَقُومُ is a complete sentence (with an implied doer pronoun). So it has its own internal government that is not affected by any element in the outer sentence. Thus, the state of the attributee رَجُلٍ has no effect on any state within the sentence-attribute. However, the entire sentence attribute is in place of a i-state noun as the attribute of رَجُلٍ.

Substituing a single-noun attribute with its corresponding stateful verb is the most basic form of the sentence-attribute. However, more complex sentence-attributes may also be formed. For example:

  1. وَٱتَّقُوا۟ یَوۡمࣰا تُرۡجَعُونَ فِیهِ إِلَى ٱللَّهِۖ [سورة البقرة 2:281 cited by أوضح المسالك لابن هشام 3/276]
    And fear a Day when you will be returned to Allāh.

In example (48) above, the sentence تُرۡجَعُونَ فِیهِ إِلَى ٱللَّهِ is a attribute of يَوْمًا.

There are three conditions that must be met in order for a sentence to occur as a attribute^: [أوضح المسالك لابن هشام 3/275–278]

  1. The attributee must be indefinite, either in wording or in meaning.
  2. The sentence-attribute must contain a link that links back to the attributee.
  3. The sentence-attribute should be truth-evaluable.

Let’s discuss each of these conditions.

Indefiniteness of the attributee

We already saw an example of an indefinite (in wording) attributee in example (48) above. Here is an example of a attributee which is definite in wording, but indefinite in meaning:

  1. وَلَقَدْ أَمُرُّ عَلَى اللَّئِيمِ يَسُبُّنِي [أوضح المسالك لابن هشام 3/276]
    And indeed I pass by the ignoble [person that] insults me

In example (49) the attributee اللَّئِيمِ is referring to a general person, and is therefore indefinite in meaning.

The sentence-attribute should be truth-evaluable

The following sentence is impermissible because the attribute اضْرِبْهُ is a non-truth-evaluable sentence.

  1. ✗ مَرَرْتُ بِرَجُلٍ اضْرِبْهُ [أوضح المسالك لابن هشام 3/278]
    I passed by a man – hit him

25.10.3 The base noun in an annexation as a complete sentence

The base noun in an annexation may be a complete sentence instead of a single noun. For example:

  1. هَـٰذَا یَوۡمُ یَنفَعُ ٱلصَّـٰدِقِینَ صِدۡقُهُمۡۚ [سورة المائدة 5:119 cited by شرح شيخ زاده على قواعد الإعراب 1/28]
    This is the Day when the truthful will benefit from their truthfulness.

In example (52) above the entire sentence یَنفَعُ ٱلصَّادِقِینَ صِدْقُهُمْ is the base noun to the annexe noun يَوْمُ. As with sentence-infos and sentence-attributes, the sentence-base noun has its own internal government. And the sentence-base noun is in place of an i-state noun.

Here is another example:

  1. یَوۡمَ هُم بَـٰرِزُونَۖ [سورة غافر 40:16 cited by شرح شيخ زاده على قواعد الإعراب 1/29]
    The Day they come forth

25.11 A foreign element separating a governor from its governee

A foreign element is one that is not directly governed by a governor. In most cases, a foreign element should not come between (and thus separate) a governor from its governee(s). For example, consider the following sentence:

  1. عَلِمْتُ مُحَمَّدًا يُؤَلِّفُ كِتَابًا [الجملة العربية لفاضل السامرائي 66]
    I knew Muḥammad [to be] writing a book.

In the example above the verbal sentence يُؤَلِّفُ كِتَابًا is in place of the second direct doee of عَلِمْتُ. The noun كِتَابًا is governed directly by the verb يُؤَلِّفُ. So كِتَابًا is a foreign element for the verb عَلِمْتُ. Therefore, the following sentence is impermissible:

  1. ✗ عَلِمْتُ كِتَابًا مُحَمَّدًا يُؤَلِّفُ [الجملة العربية لفاضل السامرائي 66]

25.12 The state-of-affairs pronoun

Usually, for pronouns, the pronoun’s referent is a single noun that occurs before it. For example, if we say

  1. زَيْدٌ هَوَ مُنْطَلِقٌ
    Zayd is setting out.

Then the pronoun هُوَ refers to the noun زَيْدٌ which occurs before it.

There is a special pronoun, called the state-of-affairs pronoun (ضَمِيرُ الشَّأْنِ) that behaves differently from other pronouns It is used to begin compound nounal sentences. Here is an example of a sentence with a state-of-affairs pronoun:

  1. هُوَ زَيْدٌ مُنْطَلِقٌ [معاني النحو 1/57]
    [The state of affairs] is: Zayd is setting out.

The pronoun هُوَ is the state-of-affairs pronoun It is the subject of the outer sentence. Its info is the inner sentence زَيْدٌ مُنْطَلِقٌ. What the state-of-affairs pronoun is referring to is explained by the entire sentence زَيْدٌ مُنْطَلِقٌ that occurs after it.

The state-of-affairs pronoun is typically used for statements that are momentous. Consider, for example, a situation where one hears some hubbub, and wonders, “What is the state of affairs that is causing this hubbub?” The answer to this question is:

  1. هُوَ الأَمِيرُ مُقْبِلٌ [شرح الرضي على الكافية 2/464]
    It is: the commander is approaching.
    (the pronoun “it” is referring to “the state of affairs”.)

This pronoun is often left untranslated. So example (58) may simply be translated as The commander is approaching.

Here are some rules and guidelines regarding the state-of-affairs pronoun:

The gender of the state-of-affairs pronoun

If the subject of the following sentence is masculine, then the state-of-affairs pronoun is generally the masculine pronoun هُوَ. And if the subject of the following sentence is feminine, then the state-of-affairs pronoun is generally the feminine pronoun هِيَ. Examples:

  1. هُوَ زَيْدٌ قَائِمٌ [البسيط لابن أبي الربيع 745]
    [The state of affairs] is: Zayd is standing.

  2. هِيَ هِنْدٌ قَائِمَةٌ [البسيط لابن أبي الربيع 745]
    [The state of affairs] is: Hind is standing.

As mentioned, the gender of the state-of-affairs pronoun generally matches the gender of the following subject (as above). Sometimes, however, it is found to mismatch. For example:

  1. هِيَ زَيْدٌ قَائِمٌ [البسيط لابن أبي الربيع 745]
    [The state of affairs] is: Zayd is standing.

  2. هُوَ هِنْدٌ قَائِمَةٌ [البسيط لابن أبي الربيع 745–756]
    [The state of affairs] is: Hind is standing.

The state-of-affairs pronoun is always a singular pronoun

The state-of-affairs pronoun is always a singular pronoun, regardless of whether the subject of the following subject is singular, dual, or plural.11

  1. هُوَ الزَّيْدَانِ قَائِمَانِ
    [The state of affairs] is: the two Zayds are standing.

  2. هِيَ الْهِنْدَاتُ قَائِمَاتٌ
    [The state of affairs] is: the Hinds are standing.

The state-of-affairs pronoun is always a pronoun for the absentee person

Even if the subject of the inner sentence is a pronoun for the speaker or adressee persons, the state-of-affairs pronoun is always a pronoun of for the absentee person. For example:

  1. هُوَ أَنَا زَيْدٌ [معاني النحو 1/59]
    [The fact] is: I am Zayd.

The sentence أَنَا أَنَا زَيْدٌ is possible, but in this case the pronoun أَنَا is not a state-of-affairs pronoun. Rather it is repeated for emphasis.12

The state-of-affairs pronouns هُوَ and هِيَ only introduce nounal sentences

The state-of-affairs pronouns هُوَ and هِيَ only introduce nounal sentences.13 This can be seen in the examples above.

We will see, in sections (kaana) and (inna), that the state-of-affairs pronoun can also be used with كَانَ and إِنَّ (and its sisters). In these cases, the state-of-affairs pronoun may introduce verbal sentences. For example:

  1. فَإِنَّهَا لَا تَعۡمَى ٱلۡأَبۡصَـٰرُ [سورة الحج 22:46 cited by شرح الرضي على الكافية 2/467]
    For indeed, it is not eyes that are blinded

  1. Hickey, L, “Stylistics, Pragmatics, and Pragmastylistics”↩︎

  2. Wright 2/250ff; الجملة العربية لفاضل السامرائي 13ff↩︎

  3. Owens, J., The foundations of grammar 55; Peled, Sentence types 87–88↩︎

  4. https://alababmisr.com/%D8%B3%D8%A4%D8%A7%D9%84-%D9%87%D9%84-%D9%8A%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B2-%D8%A3%D9%86-%D9%8A%D8%A3%D8%AA%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%AA%D8%AF%D8%A3-%D9%86%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE/↩︎

  5. شرح ابن عقيل على الألفية 1/233; معاني النحو 1/168↩︎

  6. شرح جمل الزجاجي لابن عصفور 1/347; التذييل والتكميل لأبي حيان 4/27↩︎

  7. التذييل والتكميل لأبي حيان 4/28↩︎

  8. التذييل والتكميل لأبي حيان 4/28↩︎

  9. Peled, Sentence types 94 citing شرح ابن يعيش على المفصل; المقتصد للجرجاني↩︎

  10. Wright 2/256B↩︎

  11. معاني النحو 1/59↩︎

  12. معاني النحو 1/59↩︎

  13. شرح الرضي على الكافية 2/467↩︎